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2015-04-30

Beijing Olympics 'natural study' links pollution to lower birth weight -- ScienceDaily

"The results of this study demonstrate a clear association between changes in air pollutant concentrations and birth weight," said David Q. Rich, Sc.D., M.P.H., an epidemiologist with the University of Rochester Medical Center (URMC) Departments of Public Health Sciences and Environmental Medicine and lead author of the study. "These findings not only illustrate one of the many significant health consequences of pollution, but also demonstrate that this phenomenon can be reversed."

In the months leading up to and during the 2008 Beijing Olympics (August 8-24) and Paralympics (September 6-16), the Chinese government launched a series of aggressive measures to improve the city's chronic and notoriously poor air quality. These measures included an aggressive program to curtail pollutions by implementing strict restrictions on automobile and truck use, closing factories, halting construction projects, and seeding clouds to induce rainfall.

These controls -- which were subsequently relaxed upon completion of the games -- produced a significant decrease in the concentrations of particulate and gaseous air pollution for a 6-7 week period during the Olympic games, including a 60 percent reduction in sulfur dioxide, a 48 percent reduction in carbon monoxide, a 43 percent reduction in nitrogen dioxide, and a reduction in particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter.

These measures created a unique "natural experiment" for scientists to study the impact of pollution on human health. A prior study by this group, which was also conducted in concurrence with the Beijing Olympics, demonstrated that pollutions levels were linked to physiological changes that increase risk for cardiovascular disease, and that these same air pollution reductions resulted in improvements in several risk factors

The researchers compiled information from 83,672 term births (37 to 42 weeks gestational age at birth) to mothers in four urban districts in Beijing. They compared birth weights for mothers whose eighth month of pregnancy occurred during the 2008 Olympics/Paralympics with those whose eighth month of pregnancy occurred at the same time of year in the years before (2007) and after (2009) the games when pollution levels were at their normally higher levels. They found that the babies born in 2008 were on average 23 grams larger than those in 2007 and 2009.

Late pregnancy is a particularly important period of fetal growth, as during this time the fetus experiences the greatest amount of physical growth, and the development of the central nervous, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal systems accelerates. The study suggests that pollution may be interfering with this period of development.

While the biological mechanism by which exposure to pollution causes lower birth weights are not fully understood, the scientists speculate that several factors could play a role, including maternal inflammation, altered placental function, and reduced nutrient delivery to the fetus, which may impede fetal growth.

"While Beijing's pollution is particularly noteworthy, many of the world's other cities face similar air quality problems," said Junfeng Zhang, Ph.D., with Duke Global Health Institute and Duke Kunshan University and a co-author of the study. "This study shows that pollution controls -- even short-term ones -- can have positive public health benefits."

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Multifractals suggest the existence of an unknown physical mechanism on the Sun -- ScienceDaily

Mathematical analysis of multifractals provides invaluable information on the dynamic phenomena, as they occur to varying degrees of complexity. The results are useful in a number of ways, but most importantly, they can allows us to discard the influence of current, longstanding trends. In an article published in the journal Physical Review E scientists at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (INP PAS) in Krakow, Poland, have shown for the first time that certain overlooked features of the graphs of multifractals, known as singularity spectra of the time series, have in fact a close relationship with the nature of the analyzed phenomena.

"The graphs generated by the analysis of multifractals reveal a certain asymmetry, and we've turned our attention towards that. Until now, the asymmetry was treated as a byproduct of the computational method. We have proven that the asymmetry might carry valuable information about the nature of the analyzed processes. Using this approach, looking at some of the graphs, for example those regarding the number of sunspots on the face of the Sun, we come to some very interesting conclusions," says Prof. Stanislaw Drozdz (INP PAS, Krakow University of Technology).

Fractals have a characteristic quality of self-similarity: every fragment retains a resemblance to its initial form, even after magnification or reduction. It's notable that the rescaling of any given fragment of an ordinary fractal takes place at the same rate: if we enlarge a fractal x number of times in one place, structures similar to the original appear, and if done in a different location, the enlargement will occur in the same way. Some fractals are so distinctive that they have gained fame even in popular culture. These include, among others, the Sierpinski triangle constructed in 1915 by Waclaw Sierpinski, and the characteristic set described for the first time by the French mathematician of Polish origin, Benoit Mandelbrot. It turns out, however, that there may be more advanced mathematical structures, constructed from fractals 'interwoven' with each other in an certain manner using proper proportions.

"In a sense, multifractals are fractals of fractals. They aren't merely the sum of fractals and they cannot be divided to return to their original components, because the way they 'weave' is fractal in nature. That specific weave causes each fragment of a multifractal to enlarge at a different rate," explains Dr Pawel Oswiecimka (INP PAS), the co-author.

A prototypical multifractal can be constructed at breakfast. All you need is butter and a piece of bread. Divide the slice into halves, but don't cut it. Take some butter and spread it on one half, and spread some more butter on the other half. Then divide each half into halves again and divide each smear, using half of the amount of butter as before but in the same proportions. As the process is repeated any number of times, the distribution of butter on a slice would be multifractal in nature, as the assumed disparity in the amount of butter within each pair of halves becomes more pronounced.

Tests carried out using multifractals disclose the properties encoded in the data relating to the relationships on different scales. The basic graphic tools here are known as multifractal spectra or spectra of singularity.

"If the data take the structure of a simple fractal, the multifractal graphs are reduced to a point. If the structure of a multifractal is homogenous, then the graph takes the ideal symmetrical form, that of a neat hill -- an inverted parabola. The thing is, with many graphs we've seen on the actual data, there is no ideal symmetry. As a rule, the left side is dominant," says Dr Oswiecimka.

Left-handed asymmetry shows up in a number of datasets. Upon analyzing the variety of sentence lengths in literary works, most of the graphs which result do not take the structure of a multifractal. The notable exceptions to this are the 'stream of consciousness' novels, best exemplified by James Joyce's "Finnegan's Wake." Under analysis, this and other works of the genre, such as "Rayuela" by Julio Cortazar and "2666" by Roberto Bolan, turn out to have a structure with pronounced left-handed asymmetry. This means that the relevant correlations show up mainly in the variations between longer sentences, while in the shorter sentences such correlations virtually disappear.

There are, however, phenomena which reveal signs of right-handed asymmetry. Among them is the sequence of time intervals on a stock exchange when there is a change in share prices, which does not happen uniformly. On the contrary, there are long periods when the price in the absence of transactions remains constant, then suddenly in a short time a cluster of exchanges is registered. Right-handed asymmetry means then, that while the intervals between clusters are poorly correlated, basically random, the inter-transaction times within the clusters are specifically related.

The most curious observation came to light when the INP PAS physicists started to analyze the numbers of sunspots. The surprise was that the graph didn't merely show multifractals, but also -- and this was a total surprise -- a pronounced right-handed symmetry. Thus when the fluctuations in the sunspots have a greater amplitude, its changes are random, and they become more correlated for lower amplitude fluctuations.

"Right-handed asymmetry in the case of the intervals between transactions in the stock market, that we can understand. Nothing happens for some time, somebody suddenly buys or sells, and then others join the trading activity. But what mechanism is responsible for the multifractal correlations in fluctuations of the number of sunspots, and particularly for their dual nature?" wonders Prof. Drozdz.

The results of multifractal analysis in changes to sunspots seem to support the hypothesis that the Sun may function with not one but two mechanisms responsible for the generation of magnetic fields. The research will continue in cooperation with the Belgian Royal Observatory in Brussels.

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The trillion-frame-per-second camera -- ScienceDaily

Researchers from Japan have developed a new high-speed camera that can record events at a rate of more than 1-trillion-frames-per-second. That speed is more than one thousand times faster than conventional high-speed cameras. Called STAMP, for Sequentially Timed All-optical Mapping Photography, the new camera technology "holds great promise for studying a diverse range of previously unexplored complex ultrafast phenomena," said Keiichi Nakagawa, a research fellow at the University of Tokyo, who worked to develop the camera with colleagues from an array of Japanese research institutions.

Conventional high-speed cameras are limited by the processing speed of their mechanical and electrical components. STAMP overcomes these limitations by using only fast, optical components.

Another optical imaging technique, called the pump-probe method, can create movies with an even higher frame rate than STAMP, but can only capture one frame at a time -- limiting its use to processes that are exactly reproducible.

"Many physical and biological phenomena are difficult to reproduce," said Nakagawa. "This inspired me to work on an ultrafast camera that could take multiple frames in a single shot."

Nakagawa himself experienced the need for such a camera while he was a master's student studying how acoustic shock waves changed living cells. Scientists believe mechanical stress, like that caused by acoustic waves, might increase bone and blood vessel growth, but they had no tools for capturing the dynamics of such a fast, transient event as a shock wave passing through a cell.

"Since there was no suitable technique, I decided to develop a new high-speed imaging technique in my doctoral program," Nakagawa said.

STAMP relies on a property of light called dispersion that can be observed in the way a misty sky splits sunshine into a rainbow of colors. Similarly, STAMP splits an ultrashort pulse of light into a barrage of different colored flashes that hit the imaged object in rapid-fire succession. Each separate color flash can then be analyzed to string together a moving picture of what the object looked like over the time it took the dispersed light pulse to travel through the device.

In the first iteration of STAMP, which the team described in a paper published in Nature Photonics in August 2014, the number of frames that the camera could take in a single shot was limited to six.

Currently, the team is constructing an improved STAMP system that can acquire 25 sequential images. Nakagawa believes the number of frames could eventually be increased to 100 with current technology.

Nakagawa notes that because STAMP operates on the assumption that all the differently colored daughter pulses interact with the imaged object in the same way, the camera should not be used to image samples whose optical properties change over the range of wavelengths STAMP uses.

Even given STAMP's limitations, the technology has enormous potential, Nakagawa says. His team has already used it with image electronic motion and lattice vibrations in a crystal of lithium niobate and to observe how a laser focused onto a glass plate creates a hot, rapidly expanding plume of plasma.

Nakagawa notes that the camera could be used to explore a wide range of ultrafast phenomena for the first time, including the laser ignition of fusion, the phase transition of materials, and the dynamics of a Coulomb explosion, an event in which intense electromagnetic fields (for example from a narrow laser beam) can force a small amount of solid material to explode into a hot plasma of ionized atomic particles.

"I think it is important to note that there might be many potential applications of STAMP that I have not imagined," Nakagawa said. "I hope more researchers will become interested in STAMP."

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2015-04-29

Text messaging reduces pain medicine requirements during surgery -- ScienceDaily

The study, published in Pain Medicine and funded by Cornell University, showed that mobile phones provide new opportunities for social support, improving patient comfort and reducing the need for pain relief during minor surgeries and in other clinical settings at a very low cost.

"These findings suggest that the simple act of communicating with a companion or stranger reduces the need for supplemental anesthesia in a way that surpasses usual perioperative care during surgery," said Jamie Guillory Ph.D., digital media health research scientist RTI who conducted the study while at Cornell. "This is significant as the physical presence of a social support companion is often not feasible during many minor surgery procedures."

By applying a text-based intervention, this study is an extension of existing research on the impact of social support on pain perceptions and the need for narcotic pain relief.

Researchers recruited 98 patients receiving general anesthesia for minor surgeries in Montreal, Quebec between January and March 2012. They randomly assigned patients to text message with a companion, text message with a stranger, play a mobile phone game for distraction, or receive surgery (i.e. do nothing).

While both texting conditions reduced the need for pain management better than standard surgery, only texting a stranger reduced it beyond the distraction method of playing a mobile phone game. The researchers believe that is because the conversations with strangers were more emotionally positive, focusing on topics and values personally relevant to the patient.

"Consistent with this finding, previous research shows that engaging in activities that reinforce a person's core values helps people to endure a pain tolerance task longer," Guillory said.

Conversations with companions primarily focused on the surgery, the body and negative emotions, which suggest anxious feelings in the companion about the surgery, may have resulted in shared anxiety between the patient and companion, limiting the positive effects of social support.

"Although at first it seems counterintuitive that text messaging with a stranger was more effective than with a companion, it's the content of the conversation that makes the difference in reducing patients' need for pain relief during surgery," Guillory said.

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Electron chirp: Cyclotron radiation from single electrons measured directly for first time -- ScienceDaily

Until now.

A group of almost 30 scientists and engineers from six research institutions reported the direct detection of cyclotron radiation from individual electrons April 20 in Physical Review Letters. They used a specially developed spectroscopic method that allowed them to measure the energy of electrons, one single electron at a time.

Besides the excitement of actually detecting this radiation from a single fundamental charged particle -- the electron -- the method provides a new way to potentially measure the mass of the neutrino, a subatomic particle that weighs at most two-billionths of a proton.

"One of the biggest problems in physics today is the unknown mass of the neutrino," said physicist Brent VanDevender, lead scientist from the Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. "The universe is full of neutrinos. There are so many of them that it matters how much they weigh. Even at two-billionths of a proton mass they would outweigh all of the other normal matter in the universe like stars, planets and dust, and affect the formation of large-scale structures like galaxy clusters."

Within the atom

Physicists are trying to understand some of the smallest parts of the universe. Typical atoms -- which make up all matter -- contain a nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The nucleus holds positively charged particles called protons and inert particles called neutrons, which give the atom heft. Electrons are negatively charged and zip around the nucleus.

These particles might appear unrelated, but the inert neutrons sometimes turn into protons in what is called beta decay. The proton stays behind while an electron and a neutral bit called a neutrino zip away into the universe.

Because they are so small and carry no charge, neutrinos are hard to measure. Currently, scientists have determined the heaviest a neutrino can be. Comparing the mass of a neutrino to a neutron would be like comparing a toddler to the Great Pyramid of Giza.

There are several efforts currently under way to detect and measure the neutrino mass directly, such as the KATRIN nuclear physics experiment in Germany. These efforts are huge, enlisting hundreds of researchers and building analytical instruments the size of a large house. Even so, there's a chance that the neutrino will be too small to be detected by such experiments.

About five years ago, two of the co-authors on this study proposed that perhaps instead of detecting neutrinos, or even electrons directly, they could come at the problem sideways by measuring electrons' cyclotron radiation, which can reveal an electron's energy.

If they measure, with enough precision, electrons emitted when a hydrogen carrying two extra neutrons -- a tritium atom -- beta decays to helium-3, they could infer the mass of a neutrino by adding up the energies of the helium-3 and an electron, and comparing that to a tritium atom. If they don't add up to a whole tritium atom, the difference must be the neutrino mass.

Measuring mass with energy? Yes, thanks to Einstein and special relativity. Because mass and energy are related, the team can measure the energy of electrons and get at mass that way. Gathering a few dozen collaborators into Project 8, the team developed a new method called Cyclotron Radiation Emission Spectroscopy to do so, and demonstrated it in this study.

CRES to impress

The instrument the team developed stands about as tall as a few wine barrels stacked on top of each other, much smaller than a house. To maximize their odds of success, they started with the best possible conditions. They chose an atom that would give them clean and easy to read spectroscopic information. That atom, a form of krypton called metastable krypton-83 (or 83mKr), would decay and give them lots of electrons that they could capture in their magnetic field.

As they trapped single electrons in the field, they measured how fast they zipped around in a circle, which led them to the electron energy. The energy they measured for the krypton electrons came in at the expected 30.4 kilo-electron-volts. Their precision was within 0.05 percent of the target -- not tight enough to infer neutrinos, but a very good start.

"Neutrino mass is tiny so the spectroscopy has to be exquisite. We have to do about 10 times better in the end," said VanDevender.

They didn't expect enough precision to measure the neutrino in this prototype experiment, he said, so the most exciting result for now was detecting cyclotron radiation.

"Nobody ever really doubted its existence, but it is still cool to be the first to observe a basic phenomenon of nature. This is a prediction that has been hanging out there since 1904 and it took 110 years for somebody to confirm at the level of individual fundamental particles," said VanDevender.

Beta test

VanDevender predicted it will take another decade to get a measurement for the neutrino mass, and it's possible KATRIN might weigh it first. The next step is to repeat the krypton experiments they did with tritium.

Once they've mastered that, they will have to figure out how to scale up to accommodate more tritium in much larger volumes to get the information they need to determine the neutrino mass.

In addition to PNNL, researchers at the following institutions contributed to this study: National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Charlottesville, VA, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Washington, Seattle, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, and Institut for Kernphysik, Karlsruher Institut for Technologie, Karlsruhe, Germany.

This work was supported by the Department of Energy Office of Science, University of Washington Royalty Research Foundation, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Wade Fellowship, the National Science Foundation and PNNL.

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Weighing -- and imaging -- molecules one at a time -- ScienceDaily

"You can imagine that with large protein complexes made from many different, smaller subunits there are many ways for them to be assembled. These can end up having quite similar masses while actually being different species with different biological functions. This is especially true with enzymes, proteins that mediate chemical reactions in the body, and membrane proteins that control a cell's interactions with its environment," explains Michael Roukes, the Robert M. Abbey Professor of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering at Caltech and the co-corresponding author of a paper describing the technology that appeared March 30 in the online issue of the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

One foundation of the genomics revolution has been the ability to replicate DNA or RNA molecules en masse using the polymerase chain reaction to create the many millions of copies necessary for typical sequencing and analysis. However, the same mass-production technology does not work for copying proteins. Right now, if you want to properly identify a particular protein, you need a lot of it -- typically millions of copies of just the protein of interest, with very few other extraneous proteins as contaminants. The average mass of this molecular population is then evaluated with a technique called mass spectrometry, in which the molecules are ionized -- so that they attain an electrical charge -- and then allowed to interact with an electromagnetic field. By analyzing this interaction, scientists can deduce the molecular mass-to-charge ratio.

But mass spectrometry often cannot discriminate subtle but crucial differences in molecules having similar mass-to-charge ratios. "With mass spectrometry today," explains Roukes, "large molecules and molecular complexes are first chopped up into many smaller pieces, that is, into smaller molecule fragments that existing instruments can handle. These different fragments are separately analyzed, and then bioinformatics--involving computer simulations -- are used to piece the puzzle back together. But this reassembly process can be thwarted if pieces of different complexes are mixed up together."

With their devices, Roukes and his colleagues can measure the mass of an individual intact molecule. Each device -- which is only a couple millionths of a meter in size or smaller -- consists of a vibrating structure called a nanoelectromechanical system (NEMS) resonator. When a particle or molecule lands on the nanodevice, the added mass changes the frequency at which the structure vibrates, much like putting drops of solder on a guitar string would change the frequency of its vibration and resultant tone. The induced shifts in frequency provide information about the mass of the particle. But they also, as described in the new paper, can be used to determine the three-dimensional spatial distribution of the mass: i.e., the particle's shape.

"A guitar string doesn't just vibrate at one frequency," Roukes says. "There are harmonics of its fundamental tone, or so-called vibrational modes. What distinguishes a violin string from a guitar string is really the different admixtures of these different harmonics of the fundamental tone. The same applies here. We have a whole bunch of different tones that can be excited simultaneously on each of our nanodevices, and we track many different tones in real time. It turns out that when the molecule lands in different orientations, those harmonics are shifted differently. We can then use the inertial imaging theory that we have developed to reconstruct an image in space of the shape of the molecule."

"The new technique uncovers a previously unrealized capability of mechanical sensors," says Professor Mehmet Selim Hanay of Bilkent University in Ankara, Turkey, a former postdoctoral researcher in the Roukes lab and co-first author of the paper. "Previously we've identified molecules, such as the antibody IgM, based solely on their molecular weights. Now, by enabling both the molecular weight and shape information to be deduced for the same molecule simultaneously, the new technique can greatly enhance the identification process, and this is of significance both for basic research and the pharmaceutical industry."

Currently, molecular structures are deciphered using X-ray crystallography, an often laborious technique that involves isolating, purifying, and then crystallizing molecules, and then evaluating their shape based on the diffraction patterns produced when x-rays interact with the atoms that together form the crystals. However, many complex biological molecules are difficult if not impossible to crystallize. And, even when they can be crystallized, the molecular structure obtained represents the molecule in the crystalline state, which can be very different from the structure of the molecule in its biologically active form.

"You can imagine situations where you don't know exactly what you are looking for -- where you are in discovery mode, and you are trying to figure out the body's immune response to a particular pathogen, for example," Roukes says. In these cases, the ability to carry out single-molecule detection and to get as many separate bits of information as possible about that individual molecule greatly improves the odds of making a unique identification.

"We say that cancer begins often with a single aberrant cell, and what that means is that even though it might be one of a multiplicity of similar cells, there is something unique about the molecular composition of that one cell. With this technique, we potentially have a new tool to figure out what is unique about it," he adds.

So far, the new technique has been validated using particles of known sizes and shapes, such as polymer nanodroplets. Roukes and colleagues show that with today's state-of-the-art nanodevices, the approach can provide molecular-scale resolution -- that is, provide the ability to see the molecular subcomponents of individual, intact protein assemblies. The group's current efforts are now focused on such explorations.

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Beijing Olympics study links pollution to lower birth weight -- ScienceDaily

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Bacteria in medical implants on purpose? Opening the way to living implants -- ScienceDaily

Within this branch of science, the art is to develop the various building blocks in such a way that they naturally form the desired structures. Researchers from the University of Twente MESA+ research institute have now found a method that allows them to ensure that living cells -- in this case bacteria from the human body -- can be incorporated in materials while maintaining their mobility.

This opens the way to a wide range of new applications, for example as part of medical implants. Examples include stents equipped with bacteria on which endothelial cells (cells that form the lining of blood vessels) can grow, or bacteria that can release medicines in specific parts of the body.

According to research leader Pascal Jonkheijm, this research is an important scientific step. "With this research we can now also incorporate real living building blocks in materials, while they retain their full function and mobility."

Natural Velcro

The researchers succeeded in changing the DNA of the E coli bacteria in such a way that the substance CB[8] (a small molecule of two nanometres in size with a namederived from the resemblance of this molecule with a pumpkin of the family of Cucurbitaceae) attaches to a protein on the cell membrane. This substance may then again attach to other building blocks, forming a sort of natural Velcro.

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Scientists develop first liquid nanolaser -- ScienceDaily

To understand the concept, imagine a laser pointer whose color can be changed simply by changing the liquid inside it, instead of needing a different laser pointer for every desired color.

In addition to changing color in real time, the liquid nanolaser has additional advantages over other nanolasers: it is simple to make, inexpensive to produce and operates at room temperature.

Nanoscopic lasers -- first demonstrated in 2009 -- are only found in research labs today. They are, however, of great interest for advances in technology and for military applications.

"Our study allows us to think about new laser designs and what could be possible if they could actually be made," said Teri W. Odom, who led the research. "My lab likes to go after new materials, new structures and new ways of putting them together to achieve things not yet imagined. We believe this work represents a conceptual and practical engineering advance for on-demand, reversible control of light from nanoscopic sources."

Odom is Board of Lady Managers of the Columbian Exposition Professor of Chemistry in the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences.

The findings were published this week by the journal Nature Communications.

The liquid nanolaser in this study is not a laser pointer but a laser device on a chip, Odom explained. The laser's color can be changed in real time when the liquid dye in the microfluidic channel above the laser's cavity is changed.

The laser's cavity is made up of an array of reflective gold nanoparticles, where the light is concentrated around each nanoparticle and then amplified. (In contrast to conventional laser cavities, no mirrors are required for the light to bounce back and forth.) Notably, as the laser color is tuned, the nanoparticle cavity stays fixed and does not change; only the liquid gain around the nanoparticles changes.

The main advantages of very small lasers are:

They can be used as on-chip light sources for optoelectronic integrated circuits;
They can be used in optical data storage and lithography;
They can operate reliably at one wavelength; and
They should be able to operate much faster than conventional lasers because they are made from metals.

Some technical background

Plasmon lasers are promising nanoscale coherent sources of optical fields because they support ultra-small sizes and show ultra-fast dynamics. Although plasmon lasers have been demonstrated at different spectral ranges, from the ultraviolet to near-infrared, a systematic approach to manipulate the lasing emission wavelength in real time has not been possible.

The main limitation is that only solid gain materials have been used in previous work on plasmon nanolasers; hence, fixed wavelengths were shown because solid materials cannot easily be modified. Odom's research team has found a way to integrate liquid gain materials with gold nanoparticle arrays to achieve nanoscale plasmon lasing that can be tuned dynamical, reversibly and in real time.

The use of liquid gain materials has two significant benefits:

The organic dye molecules can be readily dissolved in solvents with different refractive indices. Thus, the dielectric environment around the nanoparticle arrays can be tuned, which also tunes the lasing wavelength.
The liquid form of gain materials enables the fluid to be manipulated within a microfluidic channel. Thus, dynamic tuning of the lasing emission is possible simply by flowing liquid with different refractive indices. Moreover, as an added benefit of the liquid environment, the lasing-on-chip devices can show long-term stability because the gain molecules can be constantly refreshed.

These nanoscale lasers can be mass-produced with emission wavelengths over the entire gain bandwidth of the dye. Thus, the same fixed nanocavity structure (the same gold nanoparticle array) can exhibit lasing wavelengths that can be tuned over 50 nanometers, from 860 to 910 nanometers, simply by changing the solvent the dye is dissolved in.

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Crime scene discovery: Scientist separates the DNA of identical twins -- ScienceDaily

The probability of a DNA match between two unrelated individuals is about one in a billion. For two full siblings, the probability drops to one-in-10,000. But identical twins present exactly the same DNA profile as each other and this has created legal conundrums when it was not possible to tell which of the pair was guilty or innocent of a crime. This has led to prosecutions being dropped, rather than run the risk of convicting the wrong twin.

Now Dr Graham Williams and his Forensic Genetics Research Group at the University of Huddersfield have developed a solution to the problem and published their findings in the journal Analytical Biochemistry.

Previous methods have been proposed for distinguishing the DNA of twins. One is termed "mutation analysis," where the whole genome of both twins is sequenced to identify mutations that might have occurred to one of them.

"If such a mutation is identified at a particular location in the twin, then that same particular mutation can be specifically searched for in the crime scene sample. However, this is very expensive and time-consuming and is unlikely to be paid for by cash-strapped police forces," according to Dr Williams, who has shown that a cheaper, quicker technique is available.

It is based on the concept of DNA methylation, which is effectively the molecular mechanism that turns various genes on and off.

As twins get older, the degree of difference between them grows as they are subjected to increasingly different environments. For example, one might take up smoking, or one might have a job outdoors and the other a desk job. This will cause changes in the methylation status of the DNA.

In order to carry our speedy, inexpensive analysis of this, Dr Williams and his team propose a technique named "high resolution melt curve analysis" (HRMA).

"What HRMA does is to subject the DNA to increasingly high temperatures until the hydrogen bonds break, known as the melting temperature. The more hydrogen bonds that are present in the DNA, the higher the temperature required to melt them," explains Dr Williams.

"Consequently, if one DNA sequence is more methylated than the other, then the melting temperatures of the two samples will differ -- a difference that can be measured, and which will establish the difference between two identical twins."

HRMA has some limitations, acknowledges Dr Williams. For example young twins, or twins raised in highly similar environments may not have yet developed sufficient methylation differences.

Also the technique requires a high sample quantity that might not be present at the crime scene.

"Nevertheless, we have demonstrated substantial progress towards a relatively cheap and quick test for differentiating between identical twins in forensic case work," says Dr Williams, who gives a detailed summary of the science behind the breakthrough at blog-site The Conversation.

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